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Road maintenance
First principles assessment
Why introduce road maintenance?
The condition of a road can have impacts on congestion, speed, safety, emissions and noise pollution, and on fuel consumption. If better maintenance increases vehicular speed, or leads to other ‘compensatory’ behaviour then any safety improvements will be limited by increased risks of death and serious injury in collisions (Noland 2003, and see Accident Remedial measures). Maintenance of footways may encourage increased walking as mode of travel (Parkman et al. 2012; Pooley et al. 2013).
Gould et al. set out major reasons for planning and implementing road maintenance. They note that
“timely treatment of assets can keep them in a good state of repair and reduce or delay further degradation. While this incurs earlier costs it can avoid greater costs in the future and therefore reduce net present costs to the highway authority. Also, planned programmes of work can allow for more efficient procurement and consequently reduce unit costs” (2013, p.3).
Beyond this, authorities and organisations with responsibility for roads can be vulnerable to legal action if their planning and implementation of maintenance is deemed inadequate by courts (Atkinson 1997).
Demand impacts
The following considers impacts of programmes of repair and improved road conditions. It does not take account of costs of maintenance to users, however these are considered in the following tables.
| Response |
Reduction
in road traffic |
Expected in situations |
| 
|
|
Improved road conditions may reduce journey time and allow delayed departure time. |
| 
|
|
Maintenance might reduce diversions which would otherwise be chosen due to poor road condition. This could limit overall distance travelled. |
| 
|
|
Choice over destination might be influenced by road conditions. |
| 
|
/ |
Improved road conditions might induce trips that would not otherwise occur. |
| 
|
/ |
Maintenance of footways and carriageways can improve safety for pedestrians and cyclists, and can encourage increased use of these modes. However improved conditions may encourage greater use of private motor vehicles. |
| 
|
|
Decisions to sell vehicles or to replace with non-motorised transport could be influenced by road conditions. |
| 
|
|
Decisions on where to live might be influenced by road conditions. |
 |
=
Weakest possible response, |
 |
=
strongest possible positive response |
 |
= Weakest
possible negative response, |
 |
= strongest
possible negative response |
 |
= No response
|
Short and long run demand responses
The following considers impacts of programmes of repair and improved road conditions, taking account of costs of maintenance to users. Parkman et al. 2012 emphasise that impacts of road maintenance occur over along term, and that costs to users will lag behind decreases in maintenance (2012, ch.6).
|
Response
|
-
|
Short term
|
Long term
|
|
|
Journey time and reliability influenced by road conditions. Repairs can cause congestion.
|
|
|
|
|
Maintenance might reduce diversions due to poor road condition. This could limit overall distance travelled. Repair work can require diversions.
|
|
|
|
|
Choice over destination might be influenced by road conditions.
|
|
|
|
|
Improved road conditions might induce trips that would not otherwise occur.
|
/
|
/
|
|
|
Maintenance of footways and carriageways can improve safety for pedestrians and cyclists, and can encourage increased use of these modes. However improved conditions may encourage greater use of private motor vehicles.
|
/
|
/
|
|
|
Decisions to sell vehicles or to replace with non-motorised transport could be influenced by road conditions.
|
|
|
|
|
Decisions on where to live might be influenced by road conditions.
|
|
|
|
=
Weakest possible response, |
|
=
strongest possible positive response |
|
= Weakest
possible negative response, |
|
= strongest
possible negative response |
|
= No response
|
Supply impacts
Maintenance aimed at improving conditions for pedestrians and cyclists can increase supply of accessible pedestrian and cycle routes, this can benefit objectives of efficiency and social equity and inclusion. Maintenance should increase road capacity for motor vehicles and enable improved journey reliability.
Financing requirements
Programmes of road maintenance require initial and ongoing finance, however costs can be reduced if work is planned appropriately, and if repairs are conducted before road conditions deteriorate (Gould et al. 2013). Finance for repairs might be considered in the context of costs of failing to implement adequate programmes: these can include costs of injury or ill heath associated with collisions, poor air quality (exacerbated by poor road conditions), inaccessibility to employment and economic activity, legal liability for harm resulting from poor maintenance.
Expected impact on key policy objectives
| Contribution to objectives |
|
Objective
|
Scale of contribution
|
Comment
|
|
|
|
Planned maintenance can reduce overall costs of repair and can be offset by reduction in costs associated with poor maintenance.
|
|
|
 /
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Improved road conditions can reduce local pollution and noise, and might increase accessibility and safety and journey quality for pedestrians and cyclists. Increased speed can reduce liveability. |
|
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/
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Improved road conditions can reduce pollution, vibration and noise. In addition poor maintenance can be associated with higher fuel use and carbon emissions at a given speed. If speeds increase as a result pollution and noise may increase.
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/
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Poor maintenance affects all road users, but pedestrians and cyclists are particularly vulnerable.
|
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/
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Improved conditions can reduce risks for all road users. Higher speeds might be associated with improved road conditions. This can be offset by Accident Remedial measures. |
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It is possible factors such as accessibility, and reliable journey times will impact on economic development. However there is uncertainty about this relationship (e.g. Banister 2012).
|
|
|
/
|
There are costs of maintenance. However these can be offset against reduced costs associated with planned road maintenance. |
|
= Weakest
possible positive contribution, |
|
= strongest
possible positive contribution |
|
= Weakest
possible negative contribution |
|
= strongest
possible negative contribution |
|
=
No contribution |
Expected impact on problems
For the large part, the impacts on problems mirror those on objectives.
| Contribution to alleviation of key problems |
Problem |
Scale of contribution |
Comment |
Congestion |
|
Better maintenance will increase capacity, but repair work can create temporary congestion |
Community impacts |
/ |
Improved road conditions can reduce local pollution and noise, and might increase accessibility and safety for pedestrians and cyclists. This can bring benefits of greater accessibility to social and economic opportunity, and health benefits of greater activity levels through active travel. However, any resulting increased speed can reduce liveability. |
Environmental damage |
/ |
Improved road conditions can reduce noise, poor local air quality and carbon emissions (at fixed speeds), can reduce flood risk from poor drainage. There are environmental costs associated with materials, and implementation of road maintenance. |
Poor accessibility |
/ |
If maintenance improves conditions for pedestrians and cyclists this can increase accessibility. However higher speeds can reduce accessibility for vulnerable road users. |
Social and geographical disadvantage |
/ |
Disadvantage might be reduced by improved accessibility and by improved ability to travel to and participate in economic and social activities. Disadvantage might be increased if road improvements lead to severance through increased vehicular speed in certain areas. |
Accidents |
/ |
Improved conditions can reduce risks for all road users. Higher speeds might be associated with improved road conditions. This can be offset by Accident Remedial measures. |
Poor economic growth |
|
It is possible factors such as accessibility, and reliable journey times will impact on economic development. However there is uncertainty about this relationship. |
|
= Weakest
possible positive contribution, |
|
= strongest
possible positive contribution |
|
= Weakest
possible negative contribution |
|
= strongest
possible negative contribution |
|
=
No contribution |
Expected Winners and Losers
|
Group
|
Winners / losers
|
Comment
|
|
Large scale freight and commercial traffic
|
|
It is possible factors such as accessibility, and reliable journey times will impact on economic development. However there is uncertainty about this relationship. Improved road conditions can reduce wear on vehicles and fuel consumption. Repair work may involve some delay to traffic.
|
|
Small businesses
|
|
As above
|
| High income car-users |
|
As above |
|
Low income car-users with poor access to public transport
|
|
As above
|
| All existing public transport users |
|
Public transport using roads would benefit from improved reliability, potentially more pleasant journeys and (if cost savings are passed on) passengers may benefit from lowers fares due to lower fuel consumption and reduced vehicle wear. |
People living adjacent to the area targeted |
/
|
Improved road conditions can reduce local pollution and noise, and might increase accessibility and safety for pedestrians and cyclists. Increased speed can be a danger and disadvantage to residents. There are disadvantages to residents while repair are being undertaken. |
Cyclists including children |
/
|
Improved road conditions increase accessibility and safety for and cyclists. If road maintenance leads to increased vehicular speeds, this can present a danger to cyclists. |
| People at higher risk of health problems exacerbated by poor air quality |
|
Improved road conditions can reduce local pollution at least at fixed speeds. |
People making high value, important journeys |
|
Road maintenance should enable more reliable journey times. Repair work may involve some delay to traffic. |
| The average car user |
|
As above. Improved road conditions can reduce wear on vehicles and fuel consumption. |
|
=
weakest possible benefit, |
|
=
strongest benefit |
|
= weakest
possible disbenefet, |
|
= strongest
possible disbenefit |
|
= neither
wins nor loses |
Barriers to Implementation
|
Barrier
|
Scale
|
Comment
|
|
Legal
|
|
There may be duties to inform and/ or minimise disruption to householders or businesses inconvenienced while road maintenance is taking place. Failure to adequately maintain roads could lead to legal claims for compensation from public injured or suffering damage to vehicles.
|
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Finance
|
|
Planned programmes and ad hoc maintenance both have cost implications. Planned programmes may be economically efficient but can be vulnerable to budget cuts.
|
| Governance |
|
Given its cost implications, implementation of planned programmes of maintenance may depend on securing budget within organisations who have competing demands on their resources. |
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Political acceptability
|
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Political acceptability might depend on perceived benefits of maintenance against demands to reduce costs.
|
| Public and stakeholder acceptability |
|
There can be objections to disruptions created by road maintenance, but conversely poor maintenance is a major source of public complaints. |
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Technical feasibility
|
|
There are no technical barriers.
|
|
=
minimal barrier, |
|
=
most significant barrier |
Text edited at the Institute for Transport Studies,
University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT
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